Table 2 NO₂ emissions and economic activity—historical data (1990–2018)

GDP growth

0.341**

0.326*

0.307*

(2.147)

(1.942)

(1.865)

Manufacturing VA growth

0.130***

0.134***

0.135***

(3.347)

(3.426)

(3.334)

IP growth

0.203*

0.201**

0.206**

(2.028)

(2.166)

(2.381)

Time trend

− 0.001***

− 0.001

0.000

− 0.002***

− 0.001**

− 0.001

− 0.002**

0.000

0.001

(− 3.353)

(− 1.520)

(0.770)

(− 3.352)

(− 2.086)

(− 1.046)

(− 2.348)

(0.638)

(0.919)

Average temperature

− 0.012***

− 0.011**

− 0.011***

− 0.011**

− 0.010**

− 0.012**

(− 3.285)

(− 2.521)

(− 3.151)

(− 2.628)

(− 2.214)

(− 2.537)

Urban population

− 0.004

− 0.004

− 0.011**

(− 1.335)

(− 1.324)

(− 2.088)

Population density

− 0.001*

− 0.001*

− 0.002**

(− 1.920)

(− 1.896)

(− 2.097)

Income per-capita

0.000

0.000

− 0.000

(0.065)

(0.108)

(− 1.200)

Log GDP

− 0.056

(− 1.601)

Log manufacturing VA

0.005

(0.295)

Log IP

− 0.042

(− 1.356)

Constant

− 0.005

0.350*

1.763*

0.004

0.380*

0.101

0.006

0.913**

0.558**

(− 0.529)

(1.898)

(1.825)

(0.500)

(1.838)

(0.195)

(0.399)

(2.509)

(2.511)

Fixed effects

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Clustered SE

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

R-squared

0.061

0.082

0.086

0.051

0.074

0.076

0.058

0.100

0.092

Observations

929

863

828

852

789

775

623

568

566

No. of countries

36

36

36

36

36

36

30

30

30